Where Is the Love by Black Eyed Peas Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Where Is the Love by Black Eyed Peas - Essay Example Social or Political Context If the release date of the song â€Å"Where Is the Love† is followed and a thorough introspection within the lyrics of the song is focused, then an easy contention of the socio-political context of the song can be culminated. The song was released in the year 2003 when America was under the threat and trauma of post 9/11 event. The song was conceived almost as an anti-terrorism and anti-war anthem. The song captivated the issues pertaining to myriad social and political troubles across the world. The song does not only essentially focus on the issue of terrorism but it also highlighted the anti-terrorism policy undertaken by US government and its hypocrisy upon the issue. The song captivates the issues of intolerance, racism and extreme greed of mankind which are actually leading to the disaster of the civilisation. The song can be also perceived as the anti-terror and anti-war anthem which was pertinently culminated to set the protest against the American invasion of Iraq. In fact, the song followed the American invasion of Iraq in 2003. Musical Influences The song of Black Eyed Peas, â€Å"Where Is the Love† can be treated as the signatory music creation of the band highly influenced by the hip-hop music. The song is also influenced by the early influences on the band of the songs â€Å"Called Quest† and â€Å"De La Soul†. The song, â€Å"Where Is the Love† featured Fergie and the pop instinct of the band can be perceived in the song at full length. Fergie also introduced Justin Timberlake and associated him with the song.

Major Sources of Stress Essay Example for Free

Major Sources of Stress Essay 1. What are your major sources of stress? What types of problems do these create for you? Some of my major stresses right now are the fact that I don’t have a job. I am worried about my fiancà © and her health problems that she is dealing with. Another stressor is making sure my children have a Christmas. The biggest problem this creates for me is the stress it puts on my relationship because I am stressed and take things out on people around me. Another problem that it causes is the fact that I am so irritated I can’t concentrate on anything. 2. What are you currently doing to cope with your sources of stress? One thing that I am doing to cope with my stress is making sure I take my medication. The other thing that I am doing to cope with my stress is that I am trying to take things one at a time. I should be getting counseling but with everything else I have on my plate I am unable too. 3. Select two coping strategies from the chapter that youd like to try and explain how they may be helpful to you in dealing with stress. Provide examples of each. One coping strategy that I would like to try are: Taking charge of the situation. This could be helpful to me if I could get things in order as to what needs to be done first. The other strategy that I would like to use is: Talking to friends and family. This could be helpful by giving me the help that I need to get through everything. Taking charge of the situation would mean for me to get everything into perspective. If I have too many things on my plate, maybe I can get someone to help me depending on what the situation is. Talking to friends and family could help if I would just learn to talk to them. My fiancà © is one for sure that I should be talking to because of us being in this together. I know she would be willing to help me through everything that she can possibly help me with.

Free Othello Essay: The Disintegration of Othello -- Othello essays

The Disintegration of Othello Shakespeare's Othello is a play with unique characters. One such character is the one for which Shakespeare names his play. In the play, Othello disintegrates from a confident leader to a homicidal murderer. Linguistic changes throughout the play attest to this theory. In the opening scenes, Shakespeare portrays Othello as a noble character. When Brabantio seeks vengeance (for "stealing" his daughter) on Othello, Othello expresses his actions will "tongue out his [Brabantio's] complaints" (1.2.21). Thus he shows his calmness against the verbal slander of Brabantio. Throughout this scene, Othello remains calm and confident. Moreover, he humbly tells the story of his relationship with Desdemona. He does not flaunt the situation over Brabantio but speaks modestly. In the next act, Othello maintains his calm demeanor. He speaks poetically of seeing his "fair warrior" Desdemona (2.1.210). Later in the scene, Cassio fails at his military duties. Even though this deeply hurts Othello, he keeps his calm. He lovin...

1960’s Fashion

Choose any decade in recent history and describe how ‘Style’ defined the period- 1960’s Emergence from the devastation that hit Britain during the Second World War, Britain in the 60’s was one that broke many fashion traditions, generated new social movements and defined the period with its style. â€Å"There was to be an end to the age of shoddy, to the post-war period of ‘making do’†¦ swinging London was confident enough now to wage a war of independence. † (Jackson, 1998 p35)The post war industrial boom was affecting lifestyles and in particular, it was the the Youth culture that benefitted mostly from this shift in movement. There was emphasis on the youth and ‘The Look’ that began to displace the ‘New look’ of the post war period. Becoming more open minded, independent and culturally aware were all things that the youth began to adopt, along with disposable income. Benefits from the post war industrial boom encouraged this new attitude towards money and the way it could be spent. †¦commercial success stories, many related to retailing of one sort of another, with fashion and home furnishings being at the fore front of the consumer revolution. Because this was a time of virtually full employment and economic prosperity, consumers had more money to spend than ever before. † (Jackson, 1998, p35) The style and attitude towards fashion had changed, and it became a passion rather then a necessity. Music in the 60’s had a strong influential bond with fashion and style that had never been so closely linked.This unison created distinctive style of dress, developing from Beatnik, Teddy Boys and Mods. The attitude towards style had become very open and people began to gain confidence in their own development of sense of style. â€Å"†¦ music and attitudes that could be understood at a glance. And the freedom that fashion allowed in the sixties meant that everyone cou ld dress up. † (Connikie, 1990, p7) The Beatles were the band that represented the forefront of men’s fashion. They developed styles for each new record release and in 1963 they had portrayed the distinctive collarless Cardin Suits and collar-length hair.This recognisable hair cut became instantly noticeable in the youth culture. â€Å"†¦became a universal sign of rebellious youth. † (Connikie, 1990, p36) The Beatles also adopted a similarity to the â€Å"mod’ style, however denied connections with the culture as they wanted to appeal to all, the music and the culture both interrupted Britain at the similar time. Before the Mods culture emerged in Britain, former sub cultures such as Teddy Boys built the bridges to allow people to challenge style and create a culture.Teddy boys also lead the way for a growing male interest in fashion, making it socially acceptable. â€Å"†¦male interest in fashion in Britain was mostly associated with the under ground homosexual subculture’s flamboyant dressing styles† (Mod subculture, website, 2010) These cultures would have developed from the New Romantics as they became more out spoken and familiar. As the subcultures faded in the early 1960’s, the Mod style, short for ‘Moderns’ were prime examples of what the Swinging Sixties were classed as: youth, mobility, fashion and a strong interest in music.The majority of people who adopted this culture were young adults. The styles included; the Harrington jacket, Fishtail green parka, polo shirts, turtle necks, roll necks, slim fitting, high collared shirts, loafers, dessert boots, tailored 60’s jacket and straight leg trouser or jeans. They would drive scooters as it was an easy accessible mode of transport, it became a distinctive part of the culture, all based around style and the overall look. The attitudes around this culture was desirable to the youth but could be described as troublesome for othe rs.Rifts between the Mods and Rockers caused public display of violence in Brighton 1964, the riot scene was recreated in the film ‘Quadrophenia’, produced by the classic cult band of the period, The Who, who were popular with the Mods. Mods were seen as usually city dwellers with well paid office jobs and looked presentable, whereas Rockers tended to be rural, and classed as out of touch, oafish and grubby. This style clash shows the importance of the cults and how important being united together was.It also shows how influential style could become. Styles changed slightly throughout the Mod culture and it adopted a new Italian/ French style, introduced a smooth, sophisticated look that enhanced the tailor made feel. Crew necks, pointed toe leather shoes were a few additions to the culture. Due to this style, a period of pushing boundaries and experimentation was nigh. The use of recreational drugs was something that the culture influenced. Nicknamed ‘purple hear ts’ Mods would use the drug when out at night to get a buzz and stimulation. Mods used amphetamines to extend their leisure time into the early hours of the morning and as a way of bridging the wide gap between their hostile and daunting everyday work lives and the ‘inner world’ of dancing and dressing up in their off-hours. † (Mod subculture, website, 2011) Some male Mods experimented with challenging the social gender norms by wearing makeup to enhance their appearance and women began to substitute an androgynous style of wearing clothes. Hair was being cut short, the wear of men’s garments and little make up worn.This obsession Mods had with clothes and styles allowed acceptance to the idea of experimentation and added a sense of rebellion to social norms. Attitudes towards women in the Mod culture were also influential, young mod men accepted the idea that women did not have to be attached to a man and that they can become independent and have a source of income etc. This presentable image was said to make non-subculture aspects of life easier and more equal to that of the male Mods.Miniskirts defined the period of change in the attitude towards the length of women’s clothing and how much reveal is accepted. This initial style pushed the boundaries and as a result has changed the attitude ever since. â€Å"Female Mods pushed the boundaries if parental tolerance with their miniskirts, which got progressively shorter between the early and mid 1960’s† (Mods subculture, website, 2011) Models such as Twiggy and Jean Shrimpton were pinnacle to the fashion industry during the 1960’s.They promoted and exposed the new changing styles across the world, and in tern became a face of the period. Their style defined the period and Twiggy’s famous face is one that we automatically link to that of the 60’s. â€Å"With her waif like figure, boyish hair cut and striking eye lashes she created an ima ge that would epitomise an era. Twiggy became the idol for millions of teenage girls of the sixties revolution. † (Twiggy Lawson, website, 2008) She was one of the first supermodels and was/is an icon of the period.Mary Quant, a quintessential designer in the 60’s, made keeping up with trends inexpensive and accessible to all young girls in the period. She popularised the mini skirt and became essential for developing the Mod-girl image. She also became a defining person of the 1960’s and changed shopping experiences and attitudes to style by opening up a divergent store offering new cutting edge and orginal designs. These hand tailored designs had became desirable as each one was unique and became very popular with the youth culture. Design alone could not have brought about the revolution in taste and lifestyle that happened during the 1960’s’ the key figure of the decade were the popularisers, those who actively and directly promoted ‘the l ook’ and made it available to a mass audience. † (Jackson, 1998, p36) The British youth fashion was a lucrative market and Quant along with partner Alexander Plunket Greene opened a retail store in the Kings road called Bazaar. She designed and edited garments that became very desirable to the youth culture as it was accessible and new, in creating this idea Quant became a brand in herself.Mods were very conscious about clothing and buying the classic items. Gaining inspiration from the cults, Quant enhanced the promotion of them. In 1965 she wrote â€Å"It is the Mods†¦ who gave the dress trade the impetus to break through the fast-moving, breathtaking, uprooting revolution in which we have been a part since the opening of Bazaar. † (Jackson, 1998, p43) This shows that style generated by cults, were particularly a large influence to help define the period and possible retail future. ’The Look’ which she created was part of a wider movement enc ompassing photography, graphics and pop music along with domestic design, she was keenly aware of the significance of fashion in particular in pioneering change, and in leading and defining a shift in social attitudes. â€Å" (Jackson, 1998, p43) the attitudes had become more relaxed and people wanted this to be shown through what they wear. Their attitude towards the clothes themselves and the idea of spending money had also changed. Because this was a time of virtually full employment and economic prosperity, consumers had more money to spend then ever before. † (Jackson, 1998, p35) Along with this designer, the male revolution and attitude towards style had also changed and shopping as an experience was one that in particular men enjoyed to. John Stephen owned 10 stores down Carnaby Street by 1966. Each store had a different feel and different name. These stores became a busy, exciting place to go and shopping became a leisurely past time, where as before it was a necessit y-based experience.This encouraged the Mods, and people became to buy into the lifestyle they lead. These stores were the first to play music, allowing dancing, trying on, alterations and became a desired social experience. ‘Swinging London in 1966, what people were most interested in was shopping†¦ Shopping became a primary leisure activity for young people, along with watching television and listening to pop music. Shopping was also an avenue for the expression of popular culture, both in terms of what was now being sold, and through the way shops were designed. ’ (Jackson, 1998, p36) â€Å"That the fashion for shopping was perceived as being central to the revitalization of design in Britain†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Carnaby street’ was widely used as a generic term for a particular type of design: brash, brightly coloured, with highly decorated surfaces, including the ubiquitous union jack. † (Jackson, 1998, p37) Carnaby street developed into a ‘virtual fashion parade’ (1960’s in Fashion, website, 2011) and said to sell not only clothes but also an attitude and was a key characteristic of innovation, iconoclasm and fun. They echoed the prevailing spirit of sexual and political revolution†¦. Carnaby Street became synonymous with the idea of Swinging London. Using the skills of established Soho ‘rag trade’, it sold relatively inexpensive, trend-driven merchandise that mirrored contemporary changes in society and culture. † (V&A, Fashion in 1960’s, website, N. D) And was said to have ‘pulled the rug from under contemporary or modern† (Hillier, 1998, p188) This generated look and concept about shopping was seen as an enjoyable past time was a desirable experience from other countries outside Britain.The consumer revolution had given Britain a new look, Post war â€Å"Britain shed it fusty, olde-worlde image, and ‘swinging London’, with it Beatlemania and Rolling St ones, its Carnaby Street and mini-skirts and Chelsea boutiques, became a world influence in lifestyle and fashion. † (Hillier, 1998, p162) This defines the power Britain had to influence style in other countries, it was gaining a name in fashion and beginning to become a culture associated with Britain. The term ‘Youthquake’ was used to describe the shift in attitudes towards style and shopping.It had defined the prosperity of future Britain and therefore defined this period as a statement that is very eminent. There was a consumer revolution as shopping experiences changed. â€Å"The restrictive conventions and judgemental attitude of earlier decades were challenged†¦ shopping had a major impact on peoples lifestyles: by making available goods that people had never seen before. † (Jackson, 1998, p36) Lifestyle shops such as Habitat were introuced, they were pinnacle to defining the period and the consumer revolution.They had created a place where peop le would desire the lifestyle and living accommodations that they created visually instore. Mary Quant had influenced Terrence Conran, the founder of Habitat, as he admired young fashion designers that had challenged the norms and had drawn attention to the new market. Habitat was said to be â€Å"probably the single most important domestic design phenomenon in Britain during the 1960s. † (Jackson, 1998, p49). Habitat was recognised across seas that had inspired particularly Americans and Scandinavians to change the way of retail and style. †¦in 1966 that the international media suddenly discovered the London ‘scene’ and decided that Britain has got ‘the look’ which the rest of the world wanted. † (Jackson, 1998, p40) Pivital to this revolution was originally the Cult styles founded by the youth culture. Cult styles changed rapidly in the 1960’s, but had almost defined the period due to the influence they had caused. Due to constant shifts in style the Mods in particular had drifted away due to the changing styles, such as the Hippys. The ‘harder’ moderns were rougher and became the first ‘skinheads’, another style interpreting the period.The consumer boom was very important in defining the period and this was lead on from the styles, the ever-changing youth Cults had created throughout the 1960’s. These styles had influenced many revolutions such as breaking social norms, effecting shopping styles among other things. Style has definitely defined the period as Britain was out of the war and ready for a new social boom, style has become instantly recognizable to the period. The cults are still guiding design now, and we recognise the period due to the style and design movements there were.Retail and designers both use influences from periods in time and the Cult styles are reborn. Designers such as Fred Perry have adopted influences from the Mod culture with their polo shirts an d jackets; this look is very widespread and has almost re created the culture in the sense that the style becomes very popular. This is available to see throughout fashion and retail and the period is still defined by the style created by the youth culture. Vintage fashion has become very apparent and people are beginning to mock different eras to show individuality. This shows the style defining periods are very much important today.

Reflections on Libertarianism

Libertarianism As a Christina view, in the beginning of the time, â€Å"For in Him all things were created: things in Heaven and on Earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or powers or rulers or authorities; all things have been created through Him and for Him† (Colossians 1: 16). Human beings were created by God with one purpose to worship to Him. God knew that the first man and woman were going to fall down in the enemy temptation. That is why He created every single thing perfectly. However, we study the history through the Bible or other kind of books.We will see that few people fallowed that commitment and other people did things that are not pleasing to Him. God hoped to receive worship from them, but it was not like that. God is a gentleman, He never is going to force us to do things that we do not want to do. He gave us freedom or freewill to do whatever we want to and chooses between the good or evil. Every single human’s act will have its reward. As the Scriptures says that there are two ways, a big one and small one. In the big way, many people go in that direction because is easier; however, it drives to the perdition.The small way is the opposite form (Mathew 7: 13-14). The human’s stages start born, growing, reproducing, and dying. While, the people still alive, â€Å"Each mind is a world† (Kay, 1998, p. 163). We do different things from others and we do not care what others think about us because we have libertarianism. What is libertarianism? â€Å"It is a particular account of the metaphysics of human choice† (Stewart, Blocker & Petrik, 2012, p. 154). The libertarianism is also used in philosophy and it can refer to the freedom, liberty, right, and freewill.They are fundamental goods that governments should be extremely slow to restrict them. Long time ago, there were many slaves did not count with those goods, they knew to work for someone. We can imagine that it was hard to live in that time, now we se e different when someone left from the jail and the person is free. He stills happy and he does not want to come back again. As human beings have the knowledge to understand which things are bad and good. Libertarianism has pro and con or for and against.For example, I go to buy a used video game to Game Stop, I am going to buy it because I want it or like it, and I do not care other people think about me. In this example there are both. The pro could be that it is cheaper than the new one, but the con may be does not work well. â€Å"‘I have the right to do anything,’ you say—but not everything is beneficial. ‘I have the right to do anything’—but not everything is constructive† (Corinthians 10: 23). Libertarianism is based on the principles of Self-Ownership. It means that I have to live my own life and let others live their lives. Self-Ownership is to deny, this is to imply that another person has a higher claim on your life than you do† (Norquist, 2005). No, other person or group of people, own your life nor do you own the lives of others. For example a person exist in times and it is manifest as; past (product of your life and liberty), present (freedom or rights) and future (life). If we lose the life, then we lose our future. However, if we lose the freedom, then we lose the present or if we lose the product of our life, then we lose the past that includes our knowledge. The product if our life and our liberty is our property.Property is the fruit of our labor and the product of the time, talents, and energy. As a human being, property is part of us; it is our nature, which we turn to valuable use. At times, some people use force or fraud to take form other without voluntary consent. Examples of them are: if someone takes the life of other is murder, about liberty is slavery and property is theft. We have the right to protect our own lives, liberty and property from the forceful aggression of others. A lso, we can ask for help to others to defend us (parents) because they never want bad thing for their children.Nevertheless, we have to be sure that we are not initiating to force against the life, liberty, and property of others. We have the right to seek for a leader for ourselves to drive us, but we do not have rights to impose rulers onto others. Since we our own life, we are responsible for our lives. We do not ret our lives from other humans who demand obedience. We studied in the beginning the God created us and just to Him we should show up obedience and worship to Him; however we do not do it. We are living in the grace time that is why God does not destroy us yet. For the law was given through Moses; grace and truth came through Jesus Christ† (John 1: 17). Nor are we slaves form others who demand our sacrifice. In our lives, we choose our own goals based on our own vales, those values can go downs and ups; however we will reach one of the goal. Success and failure bo th are necessary incentives to learn and to grow. Our actions on behalf of others or their actions behalf of us, it is virtuous only when it is derived firm voluntary, mutual and consent. For virtue just can exist only where there is free choice.It is not only the most practical and humanitarian foundation for human action, it is also the most ethical. The problems in the world that arise from initiation of force by government have a solution. The solution is for the people of the Earth to stop asking government officials and initiate force on their behalf. Evil does not arise only form evil people, but also from good people who tolerant the initiation of forces as means to their own ends. In this manner, good people have empowered evil people through the history. Achieving a free society requires courage to think, to talk and to act. I do not understand what I do. For what I want to do I do not do, but what I hate I do† (Romans 7: 15). References (1998). King James Bible. (KJ V ed. , Vol. Deuteronomy). Nashville, TN: Cornerstone Bible Publishers. Kay B. Warren (1998). Indigenous movements and their critics. United Kingdom: Princeton University Press, 41 Street Princeton, New Jersey 08540. 163. Norquist, G. (2005). Ownership Can Be Revolutionary. American Enterprise,  16(2), 50. Stewart, D. , Blocker, G. H. , & Petrik, J. (2012). Fundamentals of philosophy. (8th ed. ed. ). New York: Pearson.

Acheulean Tradition

Acheulean Tradition The Acheulean (sometimes spelled Acheulian) is a stone tool techno-complex that emerged in East Africa during the Lower Paleolithic about 1.76 million years ago (abbreviated mya), and persisted until 300,000-200,000 years ago (300-200 ka), although in some places it continued as recently as 100 ka. The humans who produced the Acheulean stone tool industry were members of the species Homo erectus and H. heidelbergensis. During this period, Homo erectus left Africa through the Levantine Corridor and traveled into Eurasia and eventually Asia and Europe, bringing the technology with them. The Acheulean was preceded by the Oldowan in Africa and parts of Eurasia, and it was followed by the Mousterian Middle Paleolithic in western Eurasia and the Middle Stone Age in Africa. The Acheulean was named after the Acheul site, a Lower Paleolithic site on the Somme River in France. Acheul was discovered in the mid-19th century. Stone Tool Technology The defining artifact for the Acheulean tradition is the Acheulean handaxe, but the toolkit also included other formal and informal tools. Those tools included flakes, flake tools and cores; elongated tools (or bifaces) such as cleavers and picks (sometimes called trihedrals for their triangular cross-sections); and spheroids or bolas, roughly rounded sedimentary limestone rocks used as a percussion tool. Other percussion devices on Acheulean sites are hammerstones and anvils. Acheulean tools demonstrate a significant technological advance over the earlier Oldowan; an advance thought to parallel a cognitive and adaptive increase in brain power. The Acheulean tradition is broadly correlated with the emergence of H. erectus, although the dating for this event is /- 200,000 years, so the association of the evolution of  H. erectus with the Acheulean toolkit is a bit of a controversy. Besides flint-knapping, the Acheulean hominin was cracking nuts, working wood, and butchering carcasses with these tools. She had the ability to purposely create large flakes (10 centimeters [4 inches] in length), and reproduce standard tool shapes. Timing of the Acheulean Pioneer paleontologist Mary Leakey established the Acheuleans position in time at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, where she found Acheulean tools stratified above the older Oldowan. Since those discoveries, hundreds of thousands of Acheulean handaxes have been found throughout Africa, Europe, and Asia, spanning several million square kilometers, in multiple ecological regions, and accounting for at least one hundred thousand generations of people. The Acheulean is the oldest and longest-lasting stone tool technology in the worlds history, accounting for more than half of all recorded tool-making. Scholars have identified technological improvements along the way, and although they agree that there were changes and developments during this huge chunk of time, there are no widely-accepted names for the periods of technology change, except in the Levant. Further, since the technology is so wide-spread, local and regional changes occurred differently at different times. Chronology The following is compiled from several different sources: see the bibliography below for further information. 1.76-1.6 mya: Early Acheulean. Sites: Gona (1.6 mya), Kokiselei (1.75), Konso (1.75), FLK West, Koobi Fora, West Turkana, Sterkfontein, Bouri, all in eastern or southern Africa. Tool assemblages are dominated by large picks and thick bifaces/unifaces made on large flake blanks.1.6-1.2 mya: Sterkfontein, Konso Gardula; refinement of handaxe shape begins, advanced shaping of handaxes seen at Konso, Melka Kunture Gombore II by 850 ka.1.5 mya outside Africa: Ubeidiya in the Jordan Rift Valley of Israel, bifacial tools, including picks and handaxes, which account for over 20% of the tools. Additional tools are chopping tools, choppers and flake tools but no cleavers. Raw source material varies by tool: bifacial tools on basalt, chopping tools and flake tools on flint; spheroids in limestone1.5-1.4 in Africa: Peninj, Olduvai, Gadeb Garba. Massive production of large, shaped tools, high-quality raw materials, flake blanks, cleavers1.0 mya-700 ka: known as Large Flake Acheulian in some place s: Gesher Benot Yaaqov (780-660 ka Israel); Atapuerca, Baranc de la Boella (1 mya), Porto Maior, El Sotillo (all in Spain); Ternifine (Morocco). Numerous bifacial tools, handaxes, and cleavers make up the site assemblages; large flakes (exceeding 10 cm in maximal dimension) were used to produce handaxes. Basalt was the  preferred source for cutting materials, and true flake cleavers were the most common tool. 700-250 ka: Late Acheulean: Venosa Notarchirico (700-600 ka, Italy); La Noira (France, 700,000), Caune de lArago (690-90 ka, France), Pakefield (UK 700 ka), Boxgrove (UK, 500 ka). There are hundreds of sites dated to the Late Acheulean with many thousands of handaxes, found in harsh deserts to Mediterranean landscapes, and some of the sites have hundreds or thousands of handaxes. Cleavers are almost absent and large flake production no longer used as a primary technology for handaxes, which are at the end made with early Levallois techniquesMousterian: replaced all LP industries beginning around 250,000, widely associated with Neanderthals and later with the spread of Early Modern Humans. Sources Alperson-Afil, Nira. Scarce but Significant: The Limestone Component of the Acheulean Site of Gesher Benot Yaaqov, Israel. The Nature of Culture, Naama Goren-Inbar, SpringerLink, January 20, 2016. Beyene Y, Katoh S, WoldeGabriel G, Hart WK, Uto K, Sudo M, Kondo M, Hyodo M, Renne PR, Suwa G et al. 2013. The characteristics and chronology of the earliest Acheulean at Konso, Ethiopia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110(5):1584-1591. Corbey R, Jagich A, Vaesen K, and Collard M. 2016. The Acheulean handaxe: More like a birds song than a Beatles tune? Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews 25(1):6-19. Diez-Martà ­n F, Snchez Yustos P, Uribelarrea D, Baquedano E, Mark DF, Mabulla A, Fraile C, Duque J, Dà ­az I, Pà ©rez-Gonzlez A et al. 2015. The Origin of The Acheulean: The 1.7 Million-Year-Old Site of FLK West, Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania). Scientific Reports 5:17839. Gallotti R. 2016. The East African origin of the Western European Acheulean technology: Fact or paradigm? Quaternary International 411, Part B:9-24. Gowlett JAJ. 2015. Variability in an early hominin percussive tradition: the Acheulean versus cultural variation in modern chimpanzee artefacts. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 370(1682). Moncel M-H, Desprià ©e J, Voinchet P, Tissoux H, Moreno D, Bahain J-J, Courcimault G, and Falguà ¨res C. 2013. Early Evidence of Acheulean Settlement in Northwestern Europe - La Noira Site, a 700 000 Year-Old Occupation in the Center of France. PLOS ONE 8(11):e75529. Santonja M, and Pà ©rez-Gonzlez A. 2010. Mid-Pleistocene Acheulean industrial complex in the Iberian Peninsula. Quaternary International 223–224:154-161. Sharon G, and Barsky D. 2016. The emergence of the Acheulian in Europe – A look from the east. Quaternary International 411, Part B:25-33. Torre, Ignacio de la. The Transition to the Acheulean in East Africa: an Assessment of Paradigms and Evidence from Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania). Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, Rafael Mora, Volume 21, Issue 4, May 2, 2013.

Serial Killers And Society Essays - Crime, Murder, Psychopathy

Serial Killers And Society Essays - Crime, Murder, Psychopathy Serial Killers and Society The nineteen-seventies was an incredible decade. It was a decade of change, one of freedom, a time for great music. It was also an incredible decade for shock, fear and serial killers. John Wayne Gacy, an amateur clown, was a pedophiliac homosexual. He tortured and killed thirty three little boys and stored their remains under his house. David Berkowitz, a.k.a. the Son of Sam, stalked New York City from nineteen-sixty-seven to nineteen-seventy-seven. He claimed to have been following a voice from his dog that told him when and where to kill. Ted Bundy, who is believed to have killed at least thirty-four people, was charged for only three under his own defense- and in fact, he was commended by the judge for his own defense. He was put to death. With the combination of a very powerful media and a society fascinated with gruesome, sadistic crimes, modern serial killers have been put in the spotlight. We are enraptured with serial killers so much, that we pay seven dollars to go see a movie where everyone except the bad guys gets strangled, mutilated, or shot- and enjoy it in some sick way. The media goes out of its way to glamorize murder and terrify the public. We support killers like Charles Manson on Death Row with our tax dollars. In fact, we support them with more than that. About two months ago there was an art show in California entitled: The Death Row Art Show III. Pieces sold for thousands of dollars regardless of their aesthetic appeal, because of the identity of the artists. Serial killers are becoming as popular as rock stars. Serial killers are a development of the industrial world; they really didn't "come about" until the late eighteen-hundreds when society was becoming modernized and the threat of the new age sort of displaced some individuals so much they felt they had to kill to get their point across to society. Jack the Ripper is probably the most notorious killer in history because he established the serial killer profile. Ripper set up a pattern for the new line of mass murderers who would follow in the tradition of a truly organized killer. He had a sexual obsession with prostitutes that led him to target complete strangers for a days work. When he was done, he laid his victim out in a ritualistic manner with various disemboweled items placed strategically on or around the victim's corpse. Of course, murder has been around for centuries, committed by under-educated thieves. No one was interested in meeting, and hearing about a poor peasant that slit someones throat in a dark alley. But ever since the introduction of serial killers into our society, with their precision and strategy of the murder, the media became fascinated with these people, and so did society. So instead of killing or punishing these horrible people, we now have television networks arguing over movie rights to the killers story. News shows fighting to get the "exclusive interview". T-shirts with the killers faces on them(e.g.. the famous "Manson T-shirt"). The only explanation I can offer is that we are still obsessed with our own mortality, and we always will be. As long as we die, we'll be fascinated by those who seem to be invincible from death like, serial killers, Hitler...its almost as is we like to see the act of death itself, over and over, to observe the exact moment- or what it is that puts us over that incredible brink between life and death. I can honestly say I am fascinated with the serial killer. But since when did we condone the practice of serial killers? Why aren't they put to death promptly after being convicted, instead of being kept alive for the media to interview? You have to wonder who is making money in this. When we allow people like this to dominate our media, it's like we're saying its all right to murder. Did society and the media forget that the victims of those serial killers are us and our families? Its not the serial killers that affected the twentieth century so much, but the spotlight that allowed them to grow. Maybe if not for

Semi-, Demi-, and Hemi-

Semi-, Demi-, and Hemi- Semi-, Demi-, and Hemi- Semi-, Demi-, and Hemi- By Maeve Maddox A reader asks: †¨ Is there any rule for when to use semi and when to use half? The Latin prefix semi means half. The earliest semi- words documented in English are semicircular (1432-1450 and semi-mature (c.1440). Both William Langland (c.1332-c.1386) and Chaucer (c.1343-1400) use semi- constructions. According the OED, In the 16th-18th c., the number of permanent compounds was increased mainly by the accession of terms more or less technical [such as semicircle and semivowel]. Although theres no rule, sometimes half would be the better choice, as in this example from Fowler: This would be an immense gain over the existing fashion of a multitude of churches ill-manned semi-filled. Some common semi- words: semiabstract semiannual semiautomatic semicolon semiconscious Two other prefixes that mean half are hemi,-, from the Greek, and demi-, from Old French. In some English words, the French prefix is attached to an English word, as in demigod. Sometimes, as with demitasse and demimonde, the entire word is French. demimonde: n. The class of women of doubtful reputation and social standing, upon the outskirts of ‘society.’[Fr.; lit. ‘half-world’, ‘half-and-half society’, a phrase invented by Dumas the younger.] demitasse: n. a small coffee cup. [Fr., lit. ‘half-cup’] The prefix hemi is not as common as the other two. The most familiar word is hemisphere. Less common are words like hemicycle, hemistich, and hemitrope. In some contexts, the prefixes are used as nouns. Men in U.S. truck commercials rapturize over Hemi trucks. This use of hemi refers to a type of internal combustion engine that has a bowl-shaped or hemispherical combustion chamber. In England, a semi [sÄ•mÄ“] is a semi-detached house. In the U. S., a semi [sÄ•mÄ «] is a big truck of the tractor-trailer variety. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:20 Computer Terms You Should KnowList of Greek Words in the English LanguageComma Before Too?

REMAX Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

REMAX - Research Paper Example Their business model was such that the agents were required to devote in the brokerage operations, and in response they would receive a braod range of support services from the firm. This business strategy of Remax worked and currently the company is present in more than 80 nations across the work and ahs over 90,000 agents involved with it (Remax, 2012). Thus, it can be stated that Remax is well managed and can have infinite success in the future. This paper would focus on the management style of Remax in context of four managerial functions, namely, planning, organizing, leadership, and controlling. Remax utilises a â€Å"streamlined mangement system†, as a result of which problems are foreseen and decisions are put into action rapidly, proficiently and successfully to help the company and its agents. The strenghth and stability of Remax’s leadership in conjugation with â€Å"turn-on-a-dime flexibility† assists in guaranteeing that the company will be able to w ithstand any economic condition, as it has been able to in the past forty years (Remax, 2012). Over the period, the company had build up a variety of business development resources and systems, which comprise of, a strong brand name and its awareness worldwide, on demand guidance and training, international lead generation structures, and updated technology. Historical Perspective of Remax The concept of Remax was simple and since the beginning, Dave and Gail Liniger believed that the agents or the brokers were the biggest assets and also the most immediate client for the real estate business. Thus, Remax had always focussed primarily on attracting and retaining quality agents and providing them an extremely professional atmosphere. The vision of Dave Liniger was to build a real estate company that people could approach anywhere across the globe for their real estate needs, recognizing that only experienced and qualified professionals would cater their case. Remax had remained true to its same beliefs over the years and have evolved as the leading real estate network in the world. Remax provides its agents with the power of an internationally renowned brand, quality and professionalism of sales associates, latest service support, and a fortified market share in the real estate industry. Remax believes that the strong point of the company’s system is the superiority and class of its Sales Associates. Hence from the beginning, the company’s focus has been to offer the superior class agents with instruments and services to assist them to succeed. By drawing quality agents and endowing them with training, guidance, support in addition to the liberty to run their businesses according to their choice, the company has evolved as a leading real estate organization in the world (Remax, n.d.). Remax has been successful in developing a fortified global network of sales force that has helped in establishing the Remax brand to billions of buyers and sellers i n the real estate market. Assessment of the Management Style of Remax The planinng of Remax is based on the notion that the success of the company depends on the success of its agents and sales associates. Hence the company attempts to provide a professional environment conductive for learning to its human resources. The Growth Model that has been followed by the Management of Remax is as

Interview with a Health Professional Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Interview with a Health Professional - Essay Example There are increasing numbers of people who pursue careers in the health care industry. The reasons for delving into this challenging, yet rewarding array of health professions are diverse – which could be distinctly unique for some or universal as encompassing themes of care for others. The paramedic, in particular, is a dynamic and evolving career that interests people with genuine desire to provide immediate response to health dilemmas. The Australasian Council of Paramedic (ACP) (2008, p. 1) defines a paramedic as â€Å"a specialist health care professional who responds to requests for assistance and attends people suffering acute health crises of any nature†. Their roles and responsibilities encompass providing assessment, diagnoses and treatment to patients in health crises outside of the hospital setting. The paper hereby aims to initially conduct an interview with a health professional: a paramedic, specifically for this purpose; to summarize, reflect and evaluate on the findings and eventually to link specifically identified issues to related relevant literatures on the subject. To achieve the objective, the health professional interviewed is Peter Broadbent, a 30 year old paramedic based in Beverley Uranium Mine. The discourse would therefore summarize details from the interview and to provide a reflection with link to health literatures based on three issues: the concept of enjoyment in one’s profession, the frustrating instances, and the significant factors that impact his profession. ... The discourse would therefore summarize details from the interview and to provide a reflection with link to health literatures based on three issues: the concept of enjoyment in one’s profession, the frustrating instances, and the significant factors that impact his profession. Findings and Evaluation 1. Profile of the Interviewee With approval sought to cite his name and details provided from the interview in the current paper, Peter Broadbent has indicated that he has been working as a paramedic for four years with main responsibilities revealed by him as: provision of pre-hospital medical care in a remote location, health promotion, and testing employees for alcohol and other drugs, among others. His working hours on a weekly basis total 168 hours, with 84 hours on-duty and 84 hours on-call. Prior to delving into the details of the three specific issues identified that influence and impact his profession, Broadbent averred that from his experience, the two main issues he co nsidered prominently facing and affecting paramedics in their working life are fatigue and â€Å"burn-out†. 2. The Benefit of Enjoyment When asked â€Å"what do you enjoy most about your job?†, Broadbent’s reply was: (1) diagnosis and treatment of various illnesses; (2) interaction with patients and other members of the workplace population; and (3) the magnificent scenery in the Australian outback. Further, he clearly emphasized that having genuine enthusiasm for one’s career choice is the secret to satisfaction and enjoyment. The ability to provide enjoyment, satisfaction or pleasure in one’s job is linked to the theory of motivation in the work place, specifically Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, where people have varieties of needs that manifest

Descartes epistemology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Descartes epistemology - Essay Example These ones are often the forerunners of methodology of modern science. It seems that Descartes' epistemology is one of the most significant systems which made (of course, along with other thinkers) philosophic background for modern science, skeptical and highly rational. Both the rise of modern science and the rediscovery of skepticism were key influences on Descartes' epistemology (Stroll; Newman). While Descartes believed that humans were capable of knowledge and certainty and that modern science was developing the superstructure of knowledge, he thought that skepticism presented a legitimate challenge that needed an answer. Thus, the rational cognition was Descartes' answer, but with the number of stipulations. Descartes considered the supposition that all of one's beliefs are false. But Descartes claimed that it is not possible for all of one's beliefs to be false, for anyone who has false beliefs is thinking and knows that he is thinking, and if the person is thinking, then that person exists (Garza). Also, it was obvious that nonexistent things cannot think. So, "Cogito, ergo sum", i.e. "I think; therefore, I am".

Effective Management of Suppliers Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Effective Management of Suppliers - Assignment Example The inaccuracies in bidding can be costly to the respondent or lead to losses to the tendering firm. Introduction and Articulation of the problem A tender is handled as an offer to perform some work for a certain sum of money (firm price), or a certain quantity of benefit (cost plus or cost reimbursement). The tender which is presented by the competing companies is usually based on an invoice of amounts, an invoice of estimated quantities or other requirements which allow the tenders to obtain greater degrees of accuracy or precision which is known as the statement of work. The tendering procedure is widely used in both the public and private sector for the purchase of products or services often referred to as the procurement process. Both the respondent and the tendering party need to be careful of guaranteeing the precision of the certification interchanged and claims made during the tendering and procurement procedure. Where a declaration is found to be incorrect or deceiving, a wide and common legal disclaimer as to the precision of the declaration will be inadequate to get over such a finding. The exchange of information, in the tendering procedures, especially in the viewpoint of discussing and identifying costs will be appropriate in an evaluation of the issues where a following claim of deceptive and misleading conduct occurs in regards to the original documentation of the tender. The choice in tendering demonstrates the significance of guaranteeing the precision and completeness of details included in tender records and otherwise offered during a tendering procedure as well as representations made during that procedure. The attention of this requirement has often existed for the concerned individuals planning the proposal but organisations using the process of tendering to entice providers need to also be cautious in guaranteeing the details they provide to prospective bidders at the pre-contract level and during the process of tendering is not dec eiving in any way. Accuracy in the bidding process should be upheld because the work may be overvalued leading to the party offering the work paying more for the job while they could have incurred lesser costs. The tender may also be valued at a lower price than it should leading to the firm offering the job incur losses or make insignificantly small profit. Besides pricing, there is need for accuracy when specifying the time you will take to complete the tendered job. Accurately setting a date will mean that there will be ease in meeting the specified deadline. Literature review An estimate can be precise, low or great. A precise estimate usually results in the most cost-effective project price. In cases of either an underestimation or an overestimation, it often results in higher actual expenses. According to Aibinu and Pasco (2008), causes of inaccurate estimates in the project may occur from two places: prejudice linked with the project itself and prejudice associated with the c alculation methods used and the working environment Preparing the cost estimate of the work is one of the most challenging tasks in managing a project because it has to be done before the accomplishment of the project (Oberlender 1993). Estimation of the price of establishing projects requires extensive skills and knowledge. Because of insufficient design details in the early stages of the design, it is particularly hard for quantity surveyors to arrive at an accurate price estimate. A

Negative Effect of Reality TV Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Negative Effect of Reality TV - Essay Example These shows are very entertaining but many professionals are expressing concerns over the harmful implications. They point out that negative impacts of reality TV are higher for children and teenagers than adults. Studies have shown that children within the age of 9-12 who were depressed believed that money, popularity and beauty are key elements of gaining happiness because reality shows reinforce this concept (Genesis Health System , 2003).  A lot of stunt shows illustrate people doing risky, disgusting and scary stunts which often result in detrimental consequences when duplicated by the audience. These people tend to ignore the fact that participants in the reality show have stunt coordinators who ensure proper safety measures. Therefore, people should not follow what they see on the TV and should objectively comprehend and assess the messages and images being shown. Reality TV shows are real and profitable but the primary basis of such stunt shows seems to put people in pain o r humiliation for the audience to watch and derive enjoyment out of it. This way youngsters are turning into heartless individuals who delight in the distress and humiliation of others.Furthermore, reality TV shows often stress on superficial characteristics such as outward appearance over inner beauty consequently leaving a distorted impact on teenagers’ young and innocent minds (enotes, 2011).   Getting plastic surgery to enhance looks and becoming famous on the basis of beauty without having much talent are shallow messages. being conveyed to t

Effective Management of Suppliers Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Effective Management of Suppliers - Assignment Example The inaccuracies in bidding can be costly to the respondent or lead to losses to the tendering firm. Introduction and Articulation of the problem A tender is handled as an offer to perform some work for a certain sum of money (firm price), or a certain quantity of benefit (cost plus or cost reimbursement). The tender which is presented by the competing companies is usually based on an invoice of amounts, an invoice of estimated quantities or other requirements which allow the tenders to obtain greater degrees of accuracy or precision which is known as the statement of work. The tendering procedure is widely used in both the public and private sector for the purchase of products or services often referred to as the procurement process. Both the respondent and the tendering party need to be careful of guaranteeing the precision of the certification interchanged and claims made during the tendering and procurement procedure. Where a declaration is found to be incorrect or deceiving, a wide and common legal disclaimer as to the precision of the declaration will be inadequate to get over such a finding. The exchange of information, in the tendering procedures, especially in the viewpoint of discussing and identifying costs will be appropriate in an evaluation of the issues where a following claim of deceptive and misleading conduct occurs in regards to the original documentation of the tender. The choice in tendering demonstrates the significance of guaranteeing the precision and completeness of details included in tender records and otherwise offered during a tendering procedure as well as representations made during that procedure. The attention of this requirement has often existed for the concerned individuals planning the proposal but organisations using the process of tendering to entice providers need to also be cautious in guaranteeing the details they provide to prospective bidders at the pre-contract level and during the process of tendering is not dec eiving in any way. Accuracy in the bidding process should be upheld because the work may be overvalued leading to the party offering the work paying more for the job while they could have incurred lesser costs. The tender may also be valued at a lower price than it should leading to the firm offering the job incur losses or make insignificantly small profit. Besides pricing, there is need for accuracy when specifying the time you will take to complete the tendered job. Accurately setting a date will mean that there will be ease in meeting the specified deadline. Literature review An estimate can be precise, low or great. A precise estimate usually results in the most cost-effective project price. In cases of either an underestimation or an overestimation, it often results in higher actual expenses. According to Aibinu and Pasco (2008), causes of inaccurate estimates in the project may occur from two places: prejudice linked with the project itself and prejudice associated with the c alculation methods used and the working environment Preparing the cost estimate of the work is one of the most challenging tasks in managing a project because it has to be done before the accomplishment of the project (Oberlender 1993). Estimation of the price of establishing projects requires extensive skills and knowledge. Because of insufficient design details in the early stages of the design, it is particularly hard for quantity surveyors to arrive at an accurate price estimate. A

Sanskrit Numerations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Sanskrit Numerations - Essay Example It is widely agreed upon that that Vedic form of Sanskrit underwent a seamless evolution into the Classic Sanskrit by the middle of the first millennium BC where it changed from the first language to the second language of religion and learning. The whole Hindu-Arabic numeral system is a place value numeral system, which to the most part is built on the base 10, unlike the Babylonian base 60 system (J.J O'Connor and E F Robertson, par.3). The place value system of enumeration is built into the Sanskrit language which used nine numerals and the zero to give representation to numbers ranging from the smallest of decimals to the largest powers of ten. Sanskrit gives each power of ten a distinguishable name and as a result giving no special significance to a separate number. The Yajurveda Samhitaa listed names of units of ten up to 10 to the twelfth power (India and the Scientific Revolution, sec.3) and in times to come, Buddhist and Jain authors carried forward the list to the fifty-third power. The Sanskrit numeration system provides actual distinct names to the powers of ten, in stark contrast to the English style of using auxiliary bases like thousand, billion etc. Numbers from the start were expressed by taking the names o f the first nine units separately and the powers of ten. For Sanskrit, literature number words were used for the first nine numbers and the powers of ten. The most widely used place value symbols belong to the Devanagari script numerals, which are themselves very similar to the Brahmi numerals and form the basis of the modern Hindu-Arabic numerals (Origins, par.1). The numbers till the first power of 10 in the Sanskrit language are: The introduction of a 10th symbol, for the numeral Zero paved the way for the positional system of decimal numeration. The modern decimal system was born when the symbol for the numeral Zero came in the shape of a small circle with a dot in the middle (the dot was later dropped in the modern '0'). The widely known advancement in Arab mathematics was based on the Sanskrit numeral system and its place value and decimal system of enumeration methods. Around the seventh and eighth century, the simple and ingenious Sanskrit methods came to the attention of the Arabs and it wasn't till the 12th century that it reached Europe when Adelard of Bath translated the work of Al-Khwarizmi (an Arab mathematician) into Latin (India and the scientific revolution, sec.3). Europe, more familiar with the Roman numeral system was resistant to the Sanskrit numeral system but when the eventual adoption finally occurred, a scientific revolution swept Europe beginning in the thirteenth century. Sanskrit language and its numeral system have greatly contributed to the modern day languages and mathematics. The Devanagri script which is adopted by Hindi, Marathi and Sanskrit still employ the same numeral symbols, although the names of the numbers vary by language. The Sanskrit language is used mainly in Hindu religious rituals but the Sanskrit numerals system is the true pioneer of the modern-day mathematics. The place-value system embedded in the Sanskrit numeral system makes some parts of it very logical and wonderfully easy and simple for scientific and mathematical reasoning (India and the scientific revolution, sec.3). It outshone the Greek and Roman numeral methods and forced the Europeans

Bushido & Kagekiyo Essay Example for Free

Bushido Kagekiyo Essay Through his Kagekiyo, a Noh Play, playwright Martin Burke describes events that reflect the Japanese Samurai Bushido spirit especially through the character called Kagekiyo. For example, according to the Bushido concept, warriors were supposed to demonstrate fearlessness and athletic prowess, an aspect that is explicit through Kagekiyo’s actions. To illustrate, Kagekiyo faces the advancing Genji warriors head-on, thus successfully leading his Heike platoon in vanquishing their opponents. This act demonstrates bravery and an athletic spirit. Further, according to the Bushido tradition, persons are supposed to demonstrate an inclination to leading a frugal life. Likewise, Burke describes Kagekiyo as living like a somewhat anonymous beggar in Hiuga’s Miyazaki area. The warrior thus demonstrates wisdom in trying to erase all the past historic events that he was previously involved in. Kagekiyo realizes that he cannot realistically live on such past honor. Conversely, Bushido requires people to demonstrate honesty and kindness. Kagekiyo thus demonstrates compassion for Hitomaru his daughter by not rudely sending her away. The father even heeds to the daughter’s pleas that he narrates his past war stories. To demonstrate honesty, Kagekiyo owns up that his life is beyond repair and that he does not want this issue to unnecessarily antagonize his daughter. Bushido spirit is thus evident through the behavior that Kagekiyo depicts. Conversely, Haiku a Japanese poetry development method was eventually assimilated into the Bushido culture. I am of the view that a number of notable Haiku characteristics facilitated such assimilation. For example, Haiku generally demonstrates internal sufficiency and independence with regard to context. It can thus stand alone as an autonomous literary work. Since Bushido advocated for internal competence and independence, a similarity between the 2 entities is evident. Such similarity thus possibly pushed for the adoption of Haiku into the Bushido tradition. Work Cited Higginson, William J. and Harter, Penny. The Haiku Handbook, How to Write, Share, and Teach Haiku. Tokyo Japan: Kodansha, 1989

Role of the MP in Representation

Role of the MP in Representation What is the role of an MP as a constituency representative in theory and practice? Abstract There is a debate as to the exact role of an MP as a constituency representative and whether that role may differ in theory from practise. This dissertation will explore the differing interpretations of the representative role that MPs perform. There are differing theories as to how that role should be performed and the ways that role is performed in practice. As shall be discussed the theories as to the constituency representative role of an MP have developed over several centuries and the practice has evolved along the same time period. Factors that affected the theory and practice of an MP’s constituency representative role include the development of modern political parties, the extension of the electoral franchise and the influence of the media on the political agenda or the expectations of the electorate. Originally MPs were elected as individual representatives of their constituencies based on very narrow electorates. Some MPs were returned without having to face electi on whilst others brought their seats or had them brought for them. The rationale of this work is to examine the way that constituency representative role has changed to reach its present theoretical and practical positions. The relative positions of MPs will also be explored; for instance MPs happy to be backbenchers or those that wish to gain ministerial positions. Introduction From Parliament’s beginning in the mid 13th century an MP would almost exclusively have represented the rich merchants or the land owning classes from which they themselves were nearly always drawn from. They would tend to represent the concerns of their peers within the constituencies as neither the nobility, neither the clergy nor the poor could vote for them. Parliament was subordinate to the monarchy with the House of Lords dominating the House of Commons except in the area of taxation were the Lords did not wish to accept the unpopularity that setting taxes caused (Morgan, 1993, p.172). Attention will be paid to the roles assigned to MPs by tradition, inclination and ideological differences. Over the centuries there have been arguments and debates as to who has the right to choose an MP and who exactly that MP should represent. Finally there is the debate as to the conduct of an MP, do they have the right to do as they wish or do they have to follow the wishes of the peop le that elected them (Birch, 2001, p. 93). From the start the House of Commons main purposes was to give the king taxes in times of war or when the country was threatened whilst also passing legislation to improve the administration of the country. Although the House of Commons was less important than the House of Lords even then there were the notion that MPs represented their constituencies and raised their constituents concerns in Parliament. Whilst the House of Lords represented the upper strata of feudal England, MPs represented the middle strata of the English nation (Silk and Walters, 1998, p.1). The development of the constituency representative role Through evolution, revolution, design and accident Parliament in general and the House of Commons in particular would greatly increase in significance and power making the theory and practice of an MP’s constituency representative role more contentious as well as more important. The man widely credited with inadvertently making the role of MPs as constituency representatives and the House of Commons more important was Henry VIII. Henry used Parliament to break with Rome and establish the Church of England. His chief minister Thomas Cromwell proved highly skilled at managing the House of Commons and may have understood the consequences of the change more. Even then potential conflicts between an MP being an effective constituency representative or merely there to do the government’s bidding could be detected (Schama, 2000, p.308). The political turmoil caused by the Reformation eventually led to the civil war and the Glorious Revolution. As a result of those events Parliament became politically dominant and the forerunners of modern political parties, the Whigs and the Tories emerged. Prior to the emergence of these parties MPs were elected as independent individuals free to vote or act in any way that they considered apt. They may have represented ver y small numbers of voters yet that was because the franchise was restricted as well as the criteria for standing as an MP. Even now MPs are elected as individuals even if the vast majority of voters pick who they vote for on the basis of political parties rather than on personal merit or views. MPs have the right to change their party membership after being elected although they cannot expect to be re-elected (Silk Walters, 1998, p.10). All MPs had to have their own wealth or have wealthy supporters, as they were not paid for being an MP. Lack of a salary meant there could always be the suspicion that MPs could accept bribes or incentives to represent other people aside from their constituents and thus act against their constituency interests or the national interests. British democracy was tightly restricted, women were completely barred from voting whilst the vast majority of men could neither vote or be elected. So this meant that nearly all MPs were not representing the people in their constituency even if they more representatives of the small number of voters. Britain in fact only obtained full universal adult suffrage in 1928 after more than a century of campaigns for electoral reform (Coxall, Robins Leach, 2003, p.7). Despite attempts at occasional radical reforms by Liberal and Labour governments changes to democracy have been like the approach preferred by the Conservative party, reform or change by evolu tion rather than revolution (Comfort, 1993, p. 122). As already mentioned prior to the emergence of a party system and the extension of the electoral franchise, MPs that in theory if not always in practice had more freedom in their parliamentary actions or voting. Although free to act in any way they saw fit MPs would often form groups with like-minded colleagues. Governments would also try to manage the House of Commons so the monarch could get the legislation or the taxes they needed approved. Loose parties or groups were often formed of those MPs that supported or opposed the government. Kings such as Edward I regarded MPs as two-way representatives. As well as representing their constituency they represented the government and the king in their constituency. Should any conflict arise between an MP’s role as a constituency representative and their position as a servant of the crown then the crown usually took precedence. If an MP had any doubts about that the government would force or persuade them to conform to its wishes (B irch, 2001, p. 102). Governments were at that point still run by the monarch in fact as well as in name. A strong monarch equated to strong government with Parliament used as or when it was needed. Whilst MPs did not have the same social, economic and religious status of the nobility, abbots and bishops that sat in the House of Lords they were part of the elite within society and were supposed to be representing that groups interests. At no point were they supposed to represent the common people. Henry VIII may have used parliament to increase his own power yet his policies altered the role and importance of parliament. The dissolution of the monasteries not only removed abbots from the House of Lords it was also the largest redistribution of wealth and land in English history that most benefited MPs, their relatives and friends yet sowing the seeds of future conflict between monarch and parliament (Morgan, 1993, p.284). The legislation associated with the reformation greatly increased the power of the monarch and even today any legislation that increases government power significantly or without just cause are still referred to as ‘Henry VIII powers’ (Silk Walters, 1998, p.152). Governments still needed majorities in parliament to pass legislation and the Tudors would resort to bribery, cajoling, making concessions and personal appeals to get what they wanted. Whilst the Tudors avoided serious conflicts with Parliament Charles I and his policies would lead to civil war and his overthrow. The commonwealth witnessed written constitutions military rule and a purely nominated parliament. In the end it was decided that a constitutional monarchy offered the best means of stable government. The 17th Century saw the start of political groups that would develop into parties, it also saw the failure of democratic movements, personal rule by the monarch and military rule (Morgan, 1993, p.374). The 18th Century saw the further emergence of the party system and a new position that of Prime Minister. With Prime Ministerial government came an increase in the number of MPs that were government ministers. Taking up a ministerial position reduced the amount of time that an MP could spend representing their constituents with however the gaining of power and prestige as an incentive to accept office. Parliament remained unreformed and the electoral franchise was actually narrower than it had been under the Tudors. No government made any attempt to reform the Pocket Boroughs were MPs happened to be picked by the rich and powerful to represent them or do exactly as they told. There were at least 300 such Pocket Boroughs in the general election of 1807. MPs elected by such means were not in a hurry to reform the House of Commons as this would more than likely lead to them losing their seats (Gardiner and Wenborn, 1995, p. 604). Rotten Boroughs were even more notorious for their corrup tion, the majority of them having no voters at all, only having voters on election days or voters bribed to vote for a certain candidate. Such practices meant some MPs had reality no constituents to represent and could act without restraint or fear of losing their seat. If the government happened to control the Pocket and Rotten Boroughs it meant they could not lose its parliamentary democracy (Gardiner and Wenborn, 1995, p. 664). After 1688 Britain had been dominated by Whig governments with a Tory opposition yet neither party wished to make the country more democratic. However there were radicals such as Thomas Paine that wanted democracy and therefore electoral reform plus an overhaul of parliament. Although Paine could not bring about reform in Britain he did influence the ideas of the American and French Revolution. Those who were opposed to reform contended that Britain had its own revolutions in 1642 and 1688 with Parliament dominating the constitutional monarchy and effectively representing the nation further revolution was not needed (Hobsbawm, 1962, p. 54). Prior to the French Revolution, the Tories sometimes argued the case for parliamentary reform and extending the franchise. Such reforms would not have changed the theory and practice of an MP role as a constituency representative but it offered pragmatic advantages for the Tories. Reforms were suggested both as a means to make elections fairer wit h elections less corrupt and as a means of breaking the Whig domination of government. Some considered the reforming of seat boundaries just as important for representative government as extending the franchise. After all the last redrawing of boundaries had taken place during the Commonwealth and had been abandoned with the Restoration (Gardiner and Wenborn, 1995, p.584). The French Revolution increased the divisions between the Whigs and the Tories with the former being more liberal and the latter more conservative. However both parties had a fear of Parliamentary reform leading to radicals taking over the country, better to have a well balanced responsible government elected by the few rather than a radical irresponsible government influenced if not directly controlled by the masses. The French Revolution gave an impetus to demands for democratic reform. The reformers arguing that MPs could hardly be effective constituency representatives when the majority of people could not vote for or against them. Reformers also pointed out that the archaic boundaries made a mockery of the claim that MPs were representatives of their constituents when some represented hundreds or thousands of voters and other MPs represented a handful of voters. In reality both parties were opposed to and feared radical democratic reforms as they did not believe that Britain sho uld become fully democratic. Democratic reforms were not enacted with enthusiasm but when Parliament believed there was no other option, it was better to adopt piecemeal controllable reform than suffer revolution (Eatwell Wright, 2003, p.54). The political elite in Britain especially the Whigs were more interested in protecting property rights and laissez faire economics than political reform or actually representing the poor and the working classes. The Tories were not keen on altering British society and economy either yet would gain greater benefit from electoral reform and extensions of the franchise than their liberal counterparts. That explains the reluctance of both parties to extending the franchise and making MPs more representative of the population as a whole and more willing to represent the interests of all or most of the people in their constituencies. As far as they were concerned MPs best served the nation’s interests by serving the interests of its social and elite to which they either belonged or aspired to join. For liberals governments were solely there to allow the capitalist market and system to function unhindered. Individuals were responsible for their own success or failure; they did not ne ed or deserve the right to vote if they failed. MPs should only represent the successful (Eatwell Wright, 2003, p.27). Some Liberals along with Conservatives were afraid that universal suffrage would lead to the majority of the masses ruling over the minority, if that minority knew better (Coxall, Robins and Leach, 2003, p. 228). Such attitudes were similar to those of Edmund Burke who believed that MPs should be left to govern or be in opposition to the government in the House of Commons, representing but not subservient to their constituents (Held, 1991, p.185). The extension of the franchise would eventually lead to changes in the theory and practice of an MP’s constituency representative role. Parliament was able to resist demands for its reforms and an extension to the electoral franchise until 1832. The political establishment had managed to avoid reform following the French Revolution in 1789. Yet the Great Reform Act of 1832 was enacted following the reform movements that sprang up after the 1830 revolution in Paris that threatened the establishment. Three years earlier, Catholic Emancipation allowed Roman Catholics to vote and stand for parliamentary election provided they met the monetary and property criteria for doing so (Hobsbawm, 1962, p.110). The 1832 Act also started the process of reforming the constituency boundaries to increase the number of MPs for expanding towns such as Birmingham and Manchester as well as London. The emerging and expanding towns were still represented by only two MPs whilst some of the old constit uencies had retained their two seats even if they now had only a tiny number of voters. Increasing the number of urban constituencies meant that winning those seats became more important to any political party wishing to gain and maintain political power. As towns expanded into cities their populations had increasing expectations of what their MPs should do for them. Urban expansion and industrialisation meant that the nature of the constituency and its population changed meaning practical if not theoretical changes to the constituency representative role of an MP. The role of an MP as a constituency representative therefore developed further as Britain’s society and economy developed and progressed. An MP particularly of an urban or industrialised constituency became involved with different issues than one represented a rural or rural constituency even if they belonged to the same party. Those opposed to radical reforms would stress that an MP not only represented his constituents he used his greater intellect and judgement to make the best decisions for them. Edmund Burke whose ideas strongly influenced modern conservatism stated that a bad or weak MP was one that sacrificed his views for those of his constituents that lacked his political knowledge or sound judgement. Burke who lived in an age when the party system was less developed would no doubt felt that MPs had the right if not a duty to go against their party if they believed that is the best course of action (Comfort, 1993, p.66). It became harder to ignore the working classes and the poor within any given constituency even if an MP did not have to gain their support as they had no voting rights for much of the 19th century. An MP would have to represent more of the people within their constituency than before. Industrial and economic development made the practice of an MP as a constituency representative altered as they wished to promote prosperity, employment and health amongst their constituents. The industrial revolution may have made the capitalist classes richer yet it also promoted political unrest, epidemics such as cholera, slum housing and industrial strife. In effect it made the business of government and representation more complex. These economic and social changes led to MPs and governments taking a greater role in monitoring or industrial safety. Even before the advent of the welfare state governments became increasingly keen on improving public health, housing and education provision. Constitue nts would increasingly encourage their MPs to use their representative role to grab bigger slices of government spending to improve their constituencies. From a cynical point of view it could be argued that an MP would happily take part in such measures as part of their role as a constituency representative. Promoting the prosperity and well being of their constituency is just doing their job and if they do it well it improves their chances of re-election at the next general election. Limits to the constituency representative role On the other hand it could be argued that an MP should be a constituency representative to everybody in that constituency whether or not they voted for that MP or even if they voted against them. At the end of the day MPs are there to improve the lives of their constituents as well as to represent them. In theory an MP should stand up for their constituency’s best interests and represent them as strongly as possible in Parliament. MPs are generally supposed to follow their official party line when debating or voting in Parliament. Some MPs believe that they should be able to vote anyway they believe to be right and they should not be forced to vote for measures or acts that are contrary to their conscience or the interests of their constituency. Left wing Labour MPs referred to such defiance of the party whip as the ‘conscience clause’ when defying or considering defying the party leadership. Defiance was usually against plans to cut public spending, changes to th e National Health Service or Britain having nuclear weapons (Comfort, 1993, p. 121). In practice how well they look after their constituency interests on whether they are part of the governing part and how much influence they can have on policy formation. In practice the government’s budget is finite and hard choices or bargaining can determine whether a constituency gets a new hospital, better schools or no public help when a local factory or business closes down. Governments will often look after the interests of the constituencies represented by their MPs first even if they proclaim that they are serving the whole country’s interests. MPs from the governing party can be highly susceptible to a government being unpopularity so it is in their best interests (Birch, 2001, p. 102). For present day MPs it is a serious decision as to whether to vote against the party line when a party whip is in operation. Not only are MPs subject to internal party discipline they have been elected by their constituents to be their representative as a Labour or Conservative MP for example. Constituents can therefore regard their MP as being not only disloyal to his or her party they may regard it as a betrayal of their loyalty too. MPs have voted against their party line when their conscience could not support party policy. Some MPs will even be prepared to oppose or vote against party policies that contradict the perceived interests of the constituencies that they represent. Often in such a situation MPs will seek a workable compromise so that they have represented their constituents best interests as best they could whilst remaining loyal to their party. Labour MPs in the past for instance have voted against or frequently disputed the leadership’s decision to keep Britai n’s nuclear deterrent contending that it was not needed, it is too expensive with the additional problem of making Britain and not just their constituencies a target. The internal disputes over unilateral nuclear disarmament when combined with other divisions contributed to the party spending 18 years in opposition after 1979. The minority status of the 1976-79 Labour government made it particularly vulnerable to back bench revolt or dissent although it its failure to keep its promise over changing the electoral system and introduce devolution in Scotland and Wales that lost the parliamentary support of the Liberals and Scottish Nationalists. Its downfall came after public spending brought about the public sector strikes dubbed the ‘winter of Discontent’. Perhaps if Labour had introduced a system of proportional representation it would not have spent so many years in opposition or then go on to win three consecutive terms in office (Coxall, Robins and Leach, 2003 , p.41). Ironically enough the Labour leadership suffered its worst back- bench revolt when it was in opposition. If all the Labour, MPs had voted against during the EEC treaty debate then the Heath government would have been defeated. For Benn alongside other MPs joining the EEC was a mistake as it reduced the sovereignty of Parliament and meant that MPs would see their influence decline (Benn, 1988, p.313). Labour MPs have tended to stress their commitment to being constituency representatives and helping as many of their constituents as possible. As originally set up the Labour Party believed it represented the people in Parliament. The Labour Party was there to run the country for the people and make it a better place for all. The Labour Party was founded in 1900 from the Independent Labour Party, the Fabian Society and the Social Democratic Federation with funding from the Trades Union Congress (Rodgers Donoughue, 1966, p.46). The aim of the Labour Party was to fully represent the working class in Parliament. Not all working class men had received the vote after the latest reform of 1884. The Representation of the People Act of 1918 gave all working class men and women aged over 30 the vote. Universal adult suffrage was not achieved until 1928 by which time the Labour Party was well on the way to replacing the Liberals as the second party in British politics. The first Labour government of 1923-24 was a minority government and too weak to attempt any socialist measures. The Labour government elected in 1929 had to deal with the effects of the Wall Street Crash which made the chances of even the modest socialist measures impossible. Prime Minister Ramsey McDonald split the party by forming the National Government and cutting unemployment benefit during the worst recession anybody had ever seen. The majority of Labour MPs, members and voters felt bitterly betrayed. As far as they were concerned Ramsey McDona ld had gone against everything Labour meant to its members and to its constituents. The 1931 general election saw the party reduced to a rump of 51 MPs, the dreams of the ‘People’s Party’ seemed to be in tatters (Morgan, 1993, p.610). Yet for many years of the modern era the most successful political party has been the Conservative Party. The basic instinct of the party may have been to conserve the best of the country and make everything else better through evolutionary change. The Conservatives to a certain extent saw themselves as a caring parent representing the best interests of the people. The Conservatives also seemed to be remarkably successful in winning power when it might have been assumed that first the Liberals and then Labour would have been the natural party of government. Despite massive electoral defeats in 1906, 1945 and 1966 the Conservatives were able to regain power within relatively short periods of time. Following in the traditional view of Edmund Burke. Conservative MPs were happy to represent their constituents yet unwilling to be told by the electors what to say or do in Parliament. The Conservatives had not actually lost out with the extension of the franchise to all adults attracting en ough votes from women and working class men to be able to win general elections. The Conservatives were noted for their pragmatism rather than their ideological outlook. Unlike the Liberal and the Labour parties they always seemed to be a united party with MPs that constituents knew would work for stability and evolutionary progress. The Conservatives did not overturn the reforms of the Liberals of 1906-14 or Labour governments of 1945-51. The Liberals introduced the first unemployment benefit and pensions whilst Labour brought in the welfare state plus the NHS (Gardiner Wenborn, 1995, p.193). All this changed when Margaret Thatcher became party leader and then Prime Minister. Far from pragmatism she advocated neo-liberal policies that broke the post-war consensus. The radical policies pursued by the Thatcher governments raised questions about how the electoral system allowed such large majorities to governments supported by a minority of the electorate. This system is not represented at all and has had critics since the 19th century (Held, 1991, p.186). Some of the theoretical and practical theories of how an MP should represent their constituents has evolved over the centuries. The evolution of theory and practice has meant the representative role of an MP has developed into some contradictory directions. The ideals of an MP being in a constituency representative can be traced back to the first Parliament of 1265. MPs had a dual representative role, to the constituents that elected them and to the country they assisted in governing. Whilst MPs were independent elected individuals there was no real conflict or contradiction or roles or interests. For the MPs elected by pocket or rotten boroughs there was little conflict on interests as they did the bidding of those that had got them into Parliament. The contradiction of representing both constituencies and the country was further complicated by loyalty to political parties and positions within the government. MPs have essentially always been elected by a simple plural system, the ca ndidate with the most votes win, they don’t need a majority of votes, just a single vote more than their nearest rival. Therefore a political party that receives a majority of the votes nationally due to the vagaries of the system end up losing the election. That happened to Labour in 1951 and the Conservatives in February 1974 (Held, 1991, p.174). One drawback with the way that the theory and practice of an MPs constituency representative role has developed was that they can have little ability to stop governments introducing unpopular or ill considered policies. For instance MPs did not stop and only a minority protested against the poll tax or Britain’s involvement in the invasion of Iraq. However MPs could argue that most political parties only enact that they have promised in their election manifestos and if the people don’t want such policies then they should not vote for that party in the first place. Other events are reactions to incidences outside of the government’s control such as the Margaret Thatcher’s reaction to the invasion of the Falklands Islands, the response to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait or Britain’s involvement with the war on terror. Such events have a tendency to happen between elections leaving the electorate without the chance to approve or protest against government actions. Governments would counter claims that they were ignoring public protests or opinion by saying that sometimes they need to make important decisions quickly and do what they believe is best for the country rather than what they think is best for winning elections. Thus Margaret Thatcher’s decision to re-invade the Falkland Islands contributed to her general election victory in 1983 whilst for Tony Blair the decision to invade Iraq was blamed for the loss of more than 100 seats in the 2005 general election (Coxall, Robins and Leach, 2003, p.200). A method of ensuring that general election results would be fairer would be to switch from the first past the post system to a form of proportional representation. Using a proportional representation system would tend to make the governments more moderate as they would be coalition governments and radical policies would be less likely to be adopted. However, such a move could have a great impact on the theory and practice of an MPs constituency representative role. Depending on which system of proportional representation was adopted there might not even be a link between MPs and constituents at all. If the Additional Member System used in Germany were adopted then a strong link would be retained with a weaker link if the Single Transferable Vote as used in the Republic of Ireland were used. PR was first considered for adoption with the Liberals not keen on it. However once they had been reduced to a small third party they were much keener (Madgwick, 1994, p. 280). The general electio n results of 1974 and 1983 showed the unfairness of first past the post. With greater levels of tactical voting, the Liberal Democrats actually gained more seats in the general election of 1997, 2001,and 2005 with fewer votes that the Liberal / SDP Alliance received in 1983. Unless there is a hung Parliament similar to 1974 than it is unlikely that Proportional Representation will be introduced as both Labour and Conservatives always believe they can win an overall majority. Should Proportional Representation ever be adopted that some MPs would have greater influence than others would, mainly those in the smaller coalition parties could in theory and practice hold the largest parties to ransom (Coxall, Robins and Leach, 2003, p. 90). Conclusions To conclude the theory of an MP being a constituency representative has changed very little over the centuries. The theory of the constituency representative role is fairly straightforward. An MP is simply elected by a majority of their constituents and is the constituency representative for the term of the whole parliament. Once elected an MP is in theory bound to represent their constituency interests to the best of their ability and to participate with or oppose the government depending of whether they belong to the governing party or the opposition. In theory whether they belong to the governing party or the opposition they should scrutinise government policy and legislation. In theory MPs are still elected to Parliament as constituency representatives as if they were independent individuals rather than as members of political parties. An MP is free to switch political party they belong to whilst still sitting in the House of Commons. In reality MPs are primarily elected because of the political party they belong to and that they are the candidates for. In other words they are elected to represent their constituency as the Labour, Conservative or Liberal Democrat etc MP rather than as an individual. Once they have b

megellanic clouds :: essays research papers fc

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Clouds are usually the last things astronomers want to see in the sky, but for those who observe in the southern hemisphere there is a notable exception to that celestial rule.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Large and Small Magellanic Clouds are among the highlights of the southern night sky. Only within the last century were astronomers able to verify their true nature. Although they seem to be two foggy patches possibly torn from the Milky Way, astronomers believe these are actually small galaxies gravitationally bound to the Milky Way like moons around a giant planet. The two Clouds of Magellan are like binary stars that gravity draws together to form a satellite galaxy. Of all the galaxies in the entire Universe these are the closest to our galactic system. About 170,000 light-years away from the Milky Way galaxy lie the Large Magellanic Cloud. With only 15 billion young bright stars, it is just one-quarter the size of our own galaxy. During the winter of 1987, a Canadian astronomer, Ian Shelton, spotted the first naked eye supernova since 1604, the result of a massive explosion. No more exciting and scientifically significant event has occurred over the last decade in science than Supernova 1987A, as it is known. Photographs taken on the night of February 23, 1987, of the Large Magellanic Cloud, a companion galaxy to our own Galaxy, at Canada's southern hemisphere observatory at La Silla, Chile, and at the Siding Springs Observatory in Australia, revealed a 6th-magnitude object where only 12th-magnitude blue supergiant stars had been observed before. Scientists believe that the progenitor of Supernova 1987A is a typical blue supergiant of spectral type B3. Spectra taken in 1977 do not suggest anything unusual happening in the outer layers of the star prior to undergoing the supernova outburst. This is not surprising since the real changes were occurring deep inside in a relatively tiny portion of the star's radius. The Large Cloud is quite important because it is the location of this Supernova 1987A, the exploded star that for a time shone brightly but that is now dim and dead.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Farther away than the Large Cloud, the Small Magellanic Cloud is approximatly 200,000 light-years distant. It is roughly a third the size of the Large Cloud, consisting of only 5 billion older stars. The nebulas were named after Portuguese explorer Ferdinan Magellan, the first person to sail around the world.

Writting tips

Your response papers are, as the phrase suggests, Individual affairs. What I want, above all, Is your personal response to the readings, and to the questions Vive posed in the accompanying guidelines. In evaluating your papers, above all we consider their content: how well you address the thoughts and arguments presented by these documents, and the quality of ideas you express. That said, please consider these papers exercises in formal writing. That means you deed to adhere to the principles and rules of American English grammar and spelling.Yes, we will hold your feet to the fire on these matters. A few tips follow, addressing problems that arose In the first batch of papers: 1) Keep your tenses straight. Few trials In life are so agonizing as working through a paragraph In which tenses shift, like a wayward eye, from present to past and back again. When you are writing about the past, stay in past tense. The exception to this comes when you find yourself interpreting historical te xts (as you will do in these papers); in this case it is perfectly fine, indeed desirable, to write in the present.Think of it this way: use present tense when dealing with text, past tense when dealing with historical context. For example: â€Å"In this passage, Discusses argues that history is not simply the stories people tell. His approach contrasted sharply with that of Herodotus, who in his account of the Persian Wars mainly collected and retold stories already In circulation. † 2) Avoid unnecessary capitalization. High-flying concepts, such as State, Religion, or Monarchy, need not – should not! – be capitalized.They did that sort of thing back In the seventeenth century, but nowadays we use lower case for just about everything save proper nouns and titles. By the way, â€Å"Bible† should be capitalized, as it is the title of a work; â€Å"God† is likewise capitalized when used in a monotheistic context, as it is considered a proper noun. Bu t more generic usage, as when referring to the gods of polytheistic systems, for example, takes lower case – e. G. , â€Å"Thro was the Norse god of thunder. † 3) Do not use inverted commas (‘†¦ ‘) with quotations, except when you have to place a quote inside a quote († ‘†¦Do learn the difference between American and British usage In respect to quoted passages (Including the placement of periods and commas). In short: American usage requires that periods and commas be placed Inside the quotation marks (though semi-colons are placed outside). Use a pronoun, double-check to make sure you have established a clear precedent. Too often, pronouns show up unannounced in your papers, and it's only polite to have first made introductions. Whenever you use â€Å"it† or â€Å"they' or even â€Å"this,† make sure you've already provided a solid point of reference.The second issue concerns he use of â€Å"they,† â€Å"theirâ €  etc. As the pronoun for words such as â€Å"anyone,† â€Å"everyone,† and â€Å"somebody' – words that otherwise are treated as singular (e. G. â€Å"everyone in this class is crazy,† not â€Å"everyone are crazy. â€Å") Presumably this is because the old default option, â€Å"he,† is nowadays seen as disagreeably male-oriented. I agree that we shouldn't use â€Å"he,† â€Å"him,† â€Å"his† when the reference is not gender-specific. But this problem can usually be finessed with a little rewriting. For example, try using a plural antecedent – â€Å"persons,† â€Å"people† etc. – when you foresee using â€Å"they,† â€Å"their† etc. s he pronoun to follow. 5) Semi-colons can be very useful, but only when properly employed. As a rule, there are two permissible uses. One occurs when you have two grammatically self-standing phrases, but one leans on the other insofar in meaning (t hat is, one statement is derivative of or supplementary to the other). If the phrase is not-self sufficient, if it is grammatically dependent upon the other, then use a simple comma. The second use for semi-colons arises when you string together a long and complex list of things, and need help in keeping your sequencing clear.In this situation, the mi-colon serves as a kind of super-comma. 6) Finally, pay attention to paragraph organization. Introduce your paragraphs with a strong lead sentence – something that indicates the content of what will follow. When, three, four or more sentences down the page, you've finished with that particular point, make way for a paragraph break (and a new, helpful lead sentence). Your readers will thank for making your train of thought more clear. Even more, your writing will benefit from the ways in which paragraph organization forces you to collect your thoughts and organize them more clearly.